The wheeled inverted pendulum is a nonlinear inverted pendulum attached to a
wheel rolling without slipping on the floor. In this post, we review the
assumptions that define it, derive its equation of motion
ℓ θ ¨ = g sin ( θ ) − r ¨ cos ( θ ) , \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\ell \ddot{\theta} = g \sin(\theta) - \ddot{r} \cos(\theta), ℓ θ ¨ = g sin ( θ ) − r ¨ cos ( θ ) , and see how to linearize and discretize it for small angles, paving the way for
optimal control applications on real robots.
System definition
The wheeled inverted pendulum (WIP), depicted to the right, consists of a
concentrated mass attached to massless wheels via a massless pole. The
concentrated mass means we have a point mass model . The wheels are active, contrary to the
cart-pole model
where the wheels are passive and attached to a cart actuated by an external
force. We denote by:
ℓ \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\ell ℓ m \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
m m θ \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\theta θ r \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
r r
Since we assume the wheel rolls without slipping, the ground positoin r \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
r r ϕ \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\phi ϕ r = ρ ϕ \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
r = \rho
\phi r = ρϕ ρ \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\rho ρ r \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
r r ϕ \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\phi ϕ θ \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\theta θ r \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
r r
Kinematics of the center of mass
The position c \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\bfc c
c = r + ℓ e \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\bfc = \bfr + \ell \bfe c = r + ℓ e where r = [ r ρ ] \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\bfr = [r \ \rho] r = [ r ρ ]
e : = [ sin ( θ ) cos ( θ ) ] \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\bfe := \begin{bmatrix}
\sin(\theta) \\
\cos(\theta)
\end{bmatrix} e := [ sin ( θ ) cos ( θ ) ] This vector is directed from ground to point-mass. Its first two time derivatives are:
e ˙ = [ θ ˙ cos ( θ ) − θ ˙ sin ( θ ) ] , e ¨ = [ θ ¨ cos ( θ ) − θ ˙ 2 sin ( θ ) − θ ¨ sin ( θ ) − θ ˙ 2 cos ( θ ) ] \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\begin{align*}
\dot{\bfe} & = \begin{bmatrix}
\dot{\theta} \cos(\theta) \\
-\dot{\theta} \sin(\theta)
\end{bmatrix}, &
\ddot{\bfe} & = \begin{bmatrix}
\ddot{\theta} \cos(\theta) - \dot{\theta}^2 \sin(\theta) \\
-\ddot{\theta} \sin(\theta) - \dot{\theta}^2 \cos(\theta)
\end{bmatrix}
\end{align*} e ˙ = [ θ ˙ cos ( θ ) − θ ˙ sin ( θ ) ] , e ¨ = [ θ ¨ cos ( θ ) − θ ˙ 2 sin ( θ ) − θ ¨ sin ( θ ) − θ ˙ 2 cos ( θ ) ] By defining the unit vector e ⊥ = [ cos ( θ ) − sin ( θ ) ] \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\bfe^\bot = [\cos(\theta) \ -\sin(\theta)] e ⊥ = [ cos ( θ ) − sin ( θ )] e \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\bfe e
e ˙ = θ ˙ e ⊥ e ¨ = θ ¨ e ⊥ − θ ˙ 2 e \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\begin{align*}
\dot{\bfe} & = \dot{\theta} \bfe^\bot \\
\ddot{\bfe} & = \ddot{\theta} \bfe^\bot - \dot{\theta}^2 \bfe
\end{align*} e ˙ e ¨ = θ ˙ e ⊥ = θ ¨ e ⊥ − θ ˙ 2 e We can now derive the time derivatives of the mass position concisely:
c = r + ℓ e c ˙ = r ˙ + ℓ θ ˙ e ⊥ c ¨ = r ¨ + ℓ θ ¨ e ⊥ − ℓ θ ˙ 2 e \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\begin{align*}
\bfc & = \bfr + \ell \bfe \\
\dot{\bfc} & = \dot{\bfr} + \ell \dot{\theta} \bfe^\bot \\
\ddot{\bfc} & = \ddot{\bfr} + \ell \ddot{\theta} \bfe^\bot - \ell \dot{\theta}^2 \bfe
\end{align*} c c ˙ c ¨ = r + ℓ e = r ˙ + ℓ θ ˙ e ⊥ = r ¨ + ℓ θ ¨ e ⊥ − ℓ θ ˙ 2 e These equations give us the full kinematics of the center of mass c \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\bfc c r \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
r r θ \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\theta θ
Dynamics of the system
The Newton equation applied to the center of mass of our wheeled inverted pendulum is:
m c ¨ = m g + f e x t \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
m \ddot{\bfc} = m \bfg + \bff_{\mathit{ext}} m c ¨ = m g + f ext where g : = [ 0 − g ] \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\bfg := [0 \ {-g}] g := [ 0 − g ] g ≈ 9.81 m / s 2 \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
g \approx 9.81 \mathrm{m}/\mathrm{s}^{2} g ≈ 9.81 m / s 2 f e x t \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\bff_{\mathit{ext}} f ext r ′ = [ r 0 ] \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\bfr' = [r \ 0] r ′ = [ r 0 ] point mass model , there needs to be zero angular momentum around the center of mass, thus f \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\bff f r ′ \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\bfr' r ′ c \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\bfc c ρ ≪ ℓ \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\rho \ll \ell ρ ≪ ℓ r ′ \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\bfr' r ′ r \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\bfr r
f e x t ∝ ( c − r ′ ) ≈ ( c − r ) = f e \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\bff_{\mathit{ext}} \propto (\bfc - \bfr') \approx (\bfc - \bfr) = f \bfe f ext ∝ ( c − r ′ ) ≈ ( c − r ) = f e for some magnitude f > 0 \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
f > 0 f > 0
m r ¨ + m ℓ θ ¨ e ⊥ − m ℓ θ ˙ 2 e = m g + f e \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
m \ddot{\bfr} + m \ell \ddot{\theta} \bfe^\bot - m \ell \dot{\theta}^2 \bfe = m \bfg + f \bfe m r ¨ + m ℓ θ ¨ e ⊥ − m ℓ θ ˙ 2 e = m g + f e Taking the dot products by the two orthonormal vectors e \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\bfe e e ⊥ \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\bfe^\bot e ⊥
f = m g cos ( θ ) − m ℓ θ ˙ 2 + m r ¨ sin ( θ ) m ℓ θ ¨ = m g sin ( θ ) − m r ¨ cos ( θ ) \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\begin{align*}
f & = m g \cos(\theta) - m \ell \dot{\theta}^2 + m \ddot{r} \sin(\theta) \\
m \ell \ddot{\theta} & = m g \sin(\theta) - m \ddot{r} \cos(\theta)
\end{align*} f m ℓ θ ¨ = m g cos ( θ ) − m ℓ θ ˙ 2 + m r ¨ sin ( θ ) = m g sin ( θ ) − m r ¨ cos ( θ ) Simplifying both sides of the second equation by m \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
m m
ℓ θ ¨ = g sin ( θ ) − r ¨ cos ( θ ) \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\ell \ddot{\theta} = g \sin(\theta) - \ddot{r} \cos(\theta) ℓ θ ¨ = g sin ( θ ) − r ¨ cos ( θ ) where r \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
r r θ \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\theta θ r ¨ \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\ddot{r} r ¨ ϕ ¨ \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\ddot{\phi} ϕ ¨
Linearization and discretization
For practical applications such as model predictive control, a frequent first step is to turn the equation of motion into a linear time-invariant system:
x ˙ = A x + B u \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\dot{\bfx} = \bfA \bfx + \bfB \bfu x ˙ = A x + B u Let us define our state as x = [ r θ r ˙ θ ˙ ] \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\bfx = [ r \ \theta \ \dot{r} \ \dot{\theta} ] x = [ r θ r ˙ θ ˙ ] u = [ r ¨ ] \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\bfu = [\ddot{r}] u = [ r ¨ ] θ ≪ 1 \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\theta \ll 1 θ ≪ 1 sin ( θ ) ≈ θ \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\sin(\theta) \approx \theta sin ( θ ) ≈ θ cos ( θ ) ≈ 1 \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\cos(\theta) \approx 1 cos ( θ ) ≈ 1 sin ( θ ) = θ + o ( θ ) \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\sin(\theta) = \theta + o(\theta) sin ( θ ) = θ + o ( θ ) cos ( θ ) = 1 + o ( θ ) \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\cos(\theta) = 1 + o(\theta) cos ( θ ) = 1 + o ( θ )
A = [ 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 g ℓ 0 0 ] B = [ 0 0 1 − 1 ℓ ] \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\begin{align*}
\bfA & = \begin{bmatrix}
0 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & \frac{g}{\ell} & 0 & 0
\end{bmatrix} &
\bfB & = \begin{bmatrix}
0 \\
0 \\
1 \\
-\frac{1}{\ell}
\end{bmatrix}
\end{align*} A = 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ℓ g 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 B = 0 0 1 − ℓ 1 We can further discretize this model as:
x [ k + 1 ] = A d x [ k ] + B d u [ k ] \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\bfx[k+1] = \bfA_d \bfx[k] + \bfB_d \bfu[k] x [ k + 1 ] = A d x [ k ] + B d u [ k ] with an underlying timestep T > 0 \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
T > 0 T > 0 x [ k ] \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\bfx[k] x [ k ] x [ k + 1 ] \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\bfx[k + 1] x [ k + 1 ]
A d = exp ( A T ) = [ 1 0 T 0 cosh ( T ω ) 0 sinh ( T ω ) ω 0 0 1 0 0 ω sinh ( T ω ) 0 cosh ( T ω ) ] B d = ∫ 0 T exp ( A τ ) B d τ = [ T 2 2 1 − cosh ( T ω ) g T − ω sinh ( T ω ) g ] \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\begin{align*}
\bfA_d & = \exp(\bfA T) = \begin{bmatrix}
1 & 0 & T & 0 \\
& \cosh{\left(T \omega \right)} & 0 & \frac{\sinh{\left(T \omega \right)}}{\omega} \\
0 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\
0 & \omega \sinh{\left(T \omega \right)} & 0 & \cosh{\left(T \omega \right)}
\end{bmatrix} \\
\bfB_d & = \int_0^T \exp(\bfA \tau) \bfB \mathrm{d}\tau = \begin{bmatrix}
\frac{T^{2}}{2} \\
\frac{1 - \cosh{\left(T \omega \right)}}{g} \\
T \\
\frac{- \omega \sinh{\left(T \omega \right)}}{g}
\end{bmatrix}
\end{align*} A d B d = exp ( A T ) = 1 0 0 0 cosh ( T ω ) 0 ω sinh ( T ω ) T 0 1 0 0 ω s i n h ( T ω ) 0 cosh ( T ω ) = ∫ 0 T exp ( A τ ) B d τ = 2 T 2 g 1 − c o s h ( T ω ) T g − ω s i n h ( T ω ) where we denote by ω : = g / ℓ \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\omega := \sqrt{g / \ell} ω := g / ℓ SymPy to carry out these calculations for us:
import sympy
omega = sympy . Symbol ( "omega" , positive = True , finite = True )
l = sympy . Symbol ( "l" , positive = True , finite = True )
A = sympy . Matrix (
[
[ 0 , 0 , 1 , 0 ],
[ 0 , 0 , 0 , 1 ],
[ 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 ],
[ 0 , omega ** 2 , 0 , 0 ],
]
)
B = sympy . Matrix ([[ 0 ], [ 0 ], [ 1 ], [ - 1 / l ]])
T = sympy . Symbol ( "T" )
A_d = sympy . exp ( A * T ) . simplify ()
B_d = ( A_d . simplify () * B ) . integrate (( T , 0 , T ))
In this discrete-time, linear time-invariant form, the wheeled inverted pendulum is ripe for control, for instance by pole placement or linear model predictive control.
To go further
The wheeled inverted pendulum is closely related to the linear inverted pendulum , commonly used in bipedal locomotion, and to the cart-pole model. It has been applied widely in model predictive control, be it with the linear-quadratic regulator (no inequality constraints) or by linear model predictive control (with inequality constraints, such as velocity and acceleration limits). For prototyping, you can check out a standalone Python example of the latter in the qpmpc library . For a real-robot use case, you will find code for the same model running in the MPC balancer for Upkie wheeled bipeds.
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