A few days ago, I saw some discussion on the internet about how we could send messages between processes. Many people think of sockets, which are the most common way to send messages, even allowing communication across different machines and networks. Some don’t even realize that pipes are another way to send messages between processes:

$ echo 'hello' | base64
aGVsbG8K

Here’s what’s happening:

• The process echo is started with the content “hello”
• echo is a program that prints the message to STDOUT
• Through the pipe, the content in STDOUT is sent directly to the STDINT of the base64 process
• The base64 process encodes its input to Base64 and then puts the result in STDOUT

Note the word “send”. Yes, anonymous pipes are a form of IPC (Inter-process communication). Other forms of IPC in UNIX include:

• named pipes (mkfifo)
• sockets
• regular files
• or even a simple signal

Okay, we know that signals are a primitive form of IPC. UNIX-like systems provide a syscall called kill that sends signals to processes. Historically, this syscall was created solely to terminate processes. But over time, they needed to accommodate other types of signals, so they reused the same syscall for different purposes.

For instance, let’s create a simple Ruby script sleeper.rb which sleeps for 60 seconds, nothing more:

puts "Process ID: #{Process.pid}"
puts "Sleeping for 60 seconds..."
sleep 60

After running we see:

Process ID: 55402
Sleeping for 60 seconds...

In another window, we can send the SIGTERM signal to the process 55402 via syscall kill:

$ kill -SIGTERM 55402

And then, in the script session:

[1]    55402 terminated  ruby sleeper.rb

In Ruby, we can also trap a signal using the trap method in Ruby:

puts "Process ID: #{Process.pid}"
puts "Sleeping for 60 seconds..."
trap('SIGTERM') do 
  puts "Received SIGTERM, exiting gracefully..."
  exit
end
sleep 60

Which in turn, after sending the signal, will gracefully:

Process ID: 55536
Sleeping for 60 seconds...
Received SIGTERM, exiting gracefully...

After all, we cannot send messages using signals. They are a primitive way of sending standardized messages which will trigger specific behaviours. At most, we can trap some signals, but nothing more.

Okay Leandro, but what’s the purpose of this article then?

If we model a message as a sequence of characters, we could say that at a high-level, messages are simply strings. But in memory, they are stored as bytes.

We know that bytes are made of bits. In computer terms, what’s a bit? It’s simply an abstraction representing only two states:

First things first, let’s trap those signals in the code:

puts "Process ID: #{Process.pid}"
puts "Sleeping forever. Send signals to this process to see how it responds."
trap('SIGUSR1') do 
  puts "Received SIGUSR1 signal"
end
trap('SIGUSR2') do
  puts "Received SIGUSR2 signal"
end
sleep

Process ID: 56172
Sleeping forever. Send signals to this process to see how it responds.

After sending some kill -SIGUSR1 56172 and kill -SIGUSR2 56172, we can see that the process prints the following content:

Process ID: 56172
Sleeping forever. Send signals to this process to see how it responds.
Received SIGUSR1 signal
Received SIGUSR2 signal
Received SIGUSR2 signal
Received SIGUSR1 signal
Received SIGUSR1 signal
Received SIGUSR2 signal

Signals don’t carry data. But the example we have is perfect for changing to bits, uh?

Received SIGUSR1 signal # 0
Received SIGUSR2 signal # 1
Received SIGUSR2 signal # 1
Received SIGUSR1 signal # 0
Received SIGUSR2 signal # 1
Received SIGUSR1 signal # 0
Received SIGUSR1 signal # 0
Received SIGUSR1 signal # 0

That’s exactly 01101000, the binary representation of the letter “h”. We’re simply encoding the letter as a binary representation and sending it via signals

Again, we’re encoding it as a binary and sending it via signals.

How cool is that?

On the other side, the receiver should be capable of decoding the message and converting it back to the letter “h”:

• sender encodes the message
• receiver decodes the message

So, how do we decode 01101000 (the letter “h” in ASCII)? Let’s break it down into a few steps:

1. First, we need to see the 8 bits as individual digits in their respective positions
2. The rightmost bit is at position 0, whereas the leftmost bit is at position 7. This is how we define the most significant bit (MSB, the leftmost) and the least significant bit (LSB, the rightmost)
3. For this example, we perform a left shift operation on each bit and then sum all the values, in this case from MSB to LSB (the order doesn’t matter much for now): (0 << 7) + (1 << 6) + (1 << 5) + (0 << 4) + ... + (0 << 0):
   left shift on zeros will always produce a zero

• 0 << 7 = (2 ** 7) * 0 = 128 * 0 = 0
• 1 << 6 = (2 ** 6) * 1 = 64 * 1 = 64

Similarly to the remaining bits:

• 1 << 5 = 32
• 0 << 4 = 0
• 1 << 3 = 8
• 0 << 2 = 0
• 0 << 1 = 0
• 0 << 0 = 0

So, our sum becomes, from MSB to LSB:

MSB                          LSB
0   1    1    0   1   0   0   0
0 + 64 + 32 + 0 + 8 + 0 + 0 + 0 = 104

104 is exactly the decimal representation of the letter “h” in ASCII.

How wonderful is that?

Now let’s convert these operations to Ruby code. We’ll write a simple program receiver.rb that receives signals in order from LSB to MSB (positions 0 to 7) and then converts them back to ASCII characters, printing to STDOUT.

Basically, we’ll accumulate bits and whenever we form a complete byte, we’ll decode it to its ASCII representation. The very basic implementation of our accumulate_bit(bit) method would look like as follows:

@position = 0 # start with the LSB
@accumulator = 0
def accumulate_bit(bit)
  # The left shift operator (<<) is used to 
  # shift the bits of the number to the left.
  #
  # This is equivalent of: (2 ** @position) * bit
  @accumulator += (bit << @position)
  return @accumulator if @position == 7 # stop accumulating after 8 bits (byte)
  @position += 1 # move to the next bit position: 0 becomes 1, 1 becomes 2, etc.
end
# Letter "h" in binary is 01101000
# But we'll send from the LSB to the MSB
#
# 0110 1000 (MSB -> LSB) becomes 0001 0110 (LSB -> MSB)
# The order doesn't matter that much, it'll depend on 
# the receiver's implementation.
accumulate_bit(0)
accumulate_bit(0)
accumulate_bit(0)
accumulate_bit(1)
accumulate_bit(0)
accumulate_bit(1)
accumulate_bit(1)
accumulate_bit(0)
puts @accumulator # should print 104, which is the ASCII code for "h"

Pay attention to this code. It’s very important and builds the foundation for the next steps. If you didn’t get it, go back and read it again. Try it yourself in the terminal or using your preferred programming language.

Now, how to convert the decimal 104 to the ASCII character representation? Luckily, Ruby provides a method called chr which does the job:

irb> puts 104.chr
=> "h"

The sender’s job is the opposite of the receiver: it should encode a message (string) into bits and send them as signals to the receiver process.

Let’s think about what we need:

1. Take a message as input (like “hello”)
2. Convert each character to its byte representation
3. Extract the 8 bits from each byte
4. Send SIGUSR1 for bit 0, SIGUSR2 for bit 1
5. Repeat for all characters

The tricky part here is the step 3: how do we extract individual bits from a byte? To extract the bit at position i, we can use the following formula:

bit = (byte >> i) & 1

Let me break this down:

• byte >> i performs a right shift by i positions
• & 1 is a bitwise AND operation that extracts only the rightmost bit

For the letter “h” (01101000 in binary, 104 in decimal):

Position 0 (LSB):

• (104 >> 0) = 104 / (2 ** 0) = 104 / 1 = 104
• 01101000 >> 0 = 01101000
• 01101000 & 00000001 = 0 (one AND zero is zero)

Position 1:

• (104 >> 1) = 104 / (2 ** 1) = 104 / 2 = 52
• 01101000 >> 1 = 00110100
• 00110100 & 00000001 = 0

Position 2:

• (104 >> 2) = 104 / (2 ** 2) = 104 / 4 = 26
• 01101000 >> 2 = 00011010
• 00011010 & 00000001 = 0

Position 3:

• (104 >> 3) = 104 / (2 ** 3) = 104 / 8 = 13
• 01101000 >> 3 = 00001101
• 00001101 & 00000001 = 1 (one AND one equals one)

And so on for positions 4, 5, 6, and 7. This gives us: 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0 — exactly the bits we need from LSB to MSB!

• (104 >> 0) & 1 = 104 & 1 = 0
• (104 >> 1) & 1 = 52 & 1 = 0
• (104 >> 2) & 1 = 26 & 1 = 0
• (104 >> 3) & 1 = 13 & 1 = 1
• (104 >> 4) & 1 = 6 & 1 = 0
• (104 >> 5) & 1 = 3 & 1 = 1
• (104 >> 6) & 1 = 1 & 1 = 1
• (104 >> 7) & 1 = 0 & 1 = 0

Pay close attention to this technique. It’s a fundamental operation in low-level programming.

So now time to build the sender.rb which is pretty simple:

receiver_pid = ARGV[0].to_i
message = ARGV[1..-1].join(' ')
def encode_byte(byte)
  8.times.map do |i|
    # Extract each bit from the byte, starting from the LSB
    (byte >> i) & 1
  end
end
message.bytes.each do |byte|
  encode_byte(byte).each do |bit|
    signal = bit == 0 ? 'SIGUSR1' : 'SIGUSR2'
    Process.kill(signal, receiver_pid)
    sleep 0.001 # Delay to allow the receiver to process the signal
  end
end

For each byte (8-bit structure) we extract the bit performing the right shift + AND oprerations. The result is the extracted bit.

In the receiver window:

$ ruby receiver.rb
Process ID: 68968

And in the sender window:

$ ruby sender.rb 68968 h

The receiver will print:

$ ruby receiver.rb
Process ID: 68968
Received byte: 104 (h)

Processes sending messages with only two signals! How wonderful is that?

Now, sending the hello message is super easy. The sender is already able to send not only a letter but any message using signals:

$ ruby sender.rb 68968 hello
# And the receiver:
Received byte: 104 (h)
Received byte: 101 (e)
Received byte: 108 (l)
Received byte: 108 (l)
Received byte: 111 (o)

Just change the receiver implementation a little bit:

def decode_signal(bit)
  accumulate_bit(bit)
  return unless @position == 8 # if not yet accumulated a byte, keep accumulating
  print @accumulator.chr # print the byte as a character
  @accumulator = 0 # reset the accumulator
  @position = 0 # reset position for the next byte
end

And then:

$ ruby sender.rb 96875 Hello
# In the receiver's terminal
Process ID: 96875
Hello

However, if we send the message again, the receiver will print everything in the same line:

$ ruby sender.rb 96875 Hello
$ ruby sender.rb 96875 Hello
# In the receiver's terminal
Process ID: 96875
HelloHello

It’s obvious: the receiver doesn’t know where the sender finished the message, so it’s impossible to know where we should stop one message and print the next one on a new line with \n.

We should then determine how the sender indicates the end of the message. How about being it all zeroes (0000 0000)?

• We send the message: first 5 bytes representing the “hello” message
• Then we send a “NULL terminator”, just one byte 0 (0000 0000)

0110 1000 # h
0110 0101 # e
0110 1000 # l
0110 1000 # l
0110 1111 # o
0000 0000 # NULL

Hence, when the receiver gets a NULL terminator, it will print a line feed \n. Let’s change the sender.rb first:

receiver_pid = ARGV[0].to_i
message = ARGV[1..-1].join(' ')
def encode_byte(byte)
  8.times.map do |i|
    # Extract each bit from the byte, starting from the LSB
    (byte >> i) & 1
  end
end
message.bytes.each do |byte|
  encode_byte(byte).each do |bit|
    signal = bit == 0 ? 'SIGUSR1' : 'SIGUSR2'
    Process.kill(signal, receiver_pid)
    sleep 0.001 # Delay to allow the receiver to process the signal
  end
end
# Send NULL terminator (0000 0000)
8.times do
  Process.kill('SIGUSR1', receiver_pid)
  sleep 0.001 # Delay to allow the receiver to process the signal
end
puts "Message sent to receiver (PID: #{receiver_pid})"

Then, the receiver.rb:

@position = 0 # start with the LSB
@accumulator = 0
trap('SIGUSR1') { decode_signal(0) }
trap('SIGUSR2') { decode_signal(1) }
def decode_signal(bit)
  accumulate_bit(bit)
  return unless @position == 8 # if not yet accumulated a byte, keep accumulating
  if @accumulator.zero? # NULL terminator received
    print "\n"
  else
    print @accumulator.chr # print the byte as a character
  end
  @accumulator = 0 # reset the accumulator
  @position = 0 # reset position for the next byte
end
def accumulate_bit(bit)
  # The left shift operator (<<) is used to 
  # shift the bits of the number to the left.
  #
  # This is equivalent of: (2 ** @position) * bit
  @accumulator += (bit << @position)
  @position += 1 # move to the next bit position: 0 becomes 1, 1 becomes 2, etc.
end
puts "Process ID: #&lbrace;Process.pid&rbrace;"
sleep

Output:

$ ruby sender.rb 96875 Hello, World!
$ ruby sender.rb 96875 You're welcome
$ ruby sender.rb 96875 How are you?
# Receiver
Process ID: 97176
Hello, World!
You're welcome
How are you?

OMG Leandro! That’s amazing!

Amazing, right? We just built an entire communication system between two processes using one of the most primitive methods available: UNIX signals.

The sky’s the limit now! Why not build a full-fledged message broker using this crazy technique?

We’ll break down the development into three components:

1. Broker: the intermediary that routes messages
2. Consumer: processes that receive messages
3. Producer: processes that send messages

1. Let’s start with the Broker. It should register itself with the producer, then trap incoming signals, decode them, and enqueue the messages for delivery to consumers via outgoing signals:

#!/usr/bin/env ruby
require_relative 'signal_codec'
require_relative 'consumer'
class Broker 
  PID = 'broker.pid'.freeze
  def initialize
    @codec = SignalCodec.new
    @queue = Queue.new
    @consumer_index = 0
  end
  def start 
    register_broker
    trap('SIGUSR1') { process_bit(0) }
    trap('SIGUSR2') { process_bit(1) }
    puts "Broker PID: #{Process.pid}"
    puts "Waiting for messages..."
    distribute_messages
    sleep # Keep alive
  end 
  private
  def process_bit(bit)
    @codec.accumulate_bit(bit) do |message|
      @queue.push(message) unless message.empty?
    end
  end
  def register_broker 
    File.write(PID, Process.pid)
    at_exit { File.delete(PID) if File.exist?(PID) }
  end
  def distribute_messages
    Thread.new do
      loop do
        sleep 0.1
        next if @queue.empty?
        consumers = File.exist?(Consumer::FILE) ? File.readlines(Consumer::FILE).map(&:to_i) : []
        next if consumers.empty?
        message = @queue.pop(true) rescue next
        consumer_pid = consumers[@consumer_index % consumers.size]
        @consumer_index += 1
        puts "[SEND] #{message} → Consumer #{consumer_pid}"
        @codec.send_message(message, consumer_pid)
      end
    end
  end
end
if __FILE__ == $0 
  broker = Broker.new
  broker.start
end

• The broker registers itself
• Traps incoming signals USR1 (bit 0) and USR2 (bit 1)
• Enqueues the messages
• Send messages to consumers using outgoing signals (USR1 and USR2 too)

Note that we’re using a module called SignalCodec which will be explained soon. Basically this module contains all core components to encode/decode signals and perform bitwise operations.

2. Now the Consumer implementation:

#!/usr/bin/env ruby
require_relative 'signal_codec'
class Consumer
  FILE = 'consumers.txt'.freeze
  def initialize
    @codec = SignalCodec.new
  end
  def start
    register_consumer
    trap('SIGUSR1') { process_bit(0) }
    trap('SIGUSR2') { process_bit(1) }
    puts "Consumer PID: #{Process.pid}"
    puts "Waiting for messages..."
    sleep # Keep alive
  end
  private
  def process_bit(bit)
    @codec.accumulate_bit(bit) do |message|
      puts "[RECEIVE] #{message}"
    end
  end
  def register_consumer
    File.open(FILE, 'a') { |f| f.puts Process.pid }
    at_exit { deregister_consumer }
  end
  def deregister_consumer
    if File.exist?(FILE)
      consumers = File.readlines(FILE).map(&:strip).reject { |pid| pid.to_i == Process.pid }
      File.write(FILE, consumers.join("\n"))
    end
  end
end
if __FILE__ == $0
  consumer = Consumer.new
  consumer.start
end

• The consumer starts and registers itself with the broker
• Consumer then traps incoming signals (bit 0 and bit 1)
• Decodes and prints messages

3. Last but not least, the Producer implementation, which is pretty straightforward:

#!/usr/bin/env ruby
require_relative 'signal_codec'
require_relative 'broker'
unless File.exist?(Broker::PID)
  abort "Error: Broker not running (#{Broker::PID} not found)"
end
broker_pid = File.read(Broker::PID).strip.to_i
message = ARGV.join(' ')
if message.empty?
  puts "Usage: ruby producer.rb <message>"
  exit 1
end
codec = SignalCodec.new
puts "Sending: #&lbrace;message&rbrace;"
codec.send_message(message, broker_pid)
puts "Message sent to broker (PID: #&lbrace;broker_pid&rbrace;)"

• Producer receives a ASCII message from the STDIN
• Encode and sends the message to the broker via outgoing signals

So far, this architecture should look familiar. Many broker implementations follow these basic foundations.

Of course, production-ready implementations are far more robust than this one. Here, we’re just poking around with hacking and experimentation

The coolest part is the SignalCodec though:

class SignalCodec 
  SIGNAL_DELAY = 0.001 # Delay between signals to allow processing
  def initialize
    @accumulator = 0
    @position = 0
    @buffer = []
  end
  def accumulate_bit(bit)
    @accumulator += (bit << @position)
    @position += 1
    if @position == 8 # Byte is complete
      if @accumulator.zero? # Message complete - NULL terminator
        decoded = @buffer.pack("C*").force_encoding('UTF-8')
        yield(decoded) if block_given?
        @buffer.clear
      else 
        @buffer << @accumulator
      end
      @position = 0
      @accumulator = 0
    end
  end
  def send_message(message, pid)
    message.each_byte do |byte|
      8.times do |i|
        bit = (byte >> i) & 1
        signal = bit == 0 ? 'SIGUSR1' : 'SIGUSR2'
        Process.kill(signal, pid)
        sleep SIGNAL_DELAY
      end
    end
    # Send NULL terminator (0000 0000)
    8.times do
      Process.kill('SIGUSR1', pid)
      sleep SIGNAL_DELAY
    end
  end
end

If you’ve been following along, this shouldn’t be hard to understand, but I’ll break down how this beautiful piece of code works:

• The codec is initialized with the bit position at zero, as well as the accumulator
• A buffer is also initialized to store accumulated bits until a complete byte is formed
• The accumulate_bit method should be familiar from our earlier implementation, but it now accepts a closure (block) that lets the caller decide what to do with each decoded byte
• send_message encodes a message into bits and sends them via UNIX signals

Everything in action:

How cool, amazing, wonderful, impressive, astonishing is that?

Yes, we built a message broker using nothing but UNIX signals and a bit of Ruby magic. Sure, it’s not production-ready, and you definitely shouldn’t use this in your next startup (please don’t), but that was never the point.

The real takeaway here isn’t the broker itself: it’s understanding how the fundamentals work. We explored binary operations, UNIX signals, and IPC in a hands-on way that most people never bother with.

We took something “useless” and made it work, just for fun. So next time someone asks you about message brokers, you can casually mention that you once built (or saw) one using just two signals. And if they look at you weird, well, that’s their problem. Now go build something equally useless and amazing. The world needs more hackers who experiment just for the fun of it.

Happy hacking!